A Comprehensive Review on Supercapacitor Applications and Developments

Şahin, Mustafa Ergin; Blaabjerg, Frede; Sangwongwanich, Ariya

doi:10.3390/en15030674

الشكل 3. ( أ ) تكوين المكثف الزائف (PC) و ( ب ) المكثف الفائق الهجين (HSC) [ 109 ].

تحميل...

الوصول المفتوحمراجعة

مراجعة شاملة لتطبيقات وتطورات المكثفات الفائقة

بواسطة

مصطفى إرجين شاهين

^1،*

،

فريد بلاببيرج

²

و

أريا سانغوونغوانيتش

²

¹

قسم الهندسة الكهربائية والإلكترونية، جامعة رجب طيب أردوغان، ريزي 53100، تركيا

²

قسم تكنولوجيا الطاقة، جامعة ألبورج، بونتوبيدانتسترايد، 9220 ألبورج، الدنمارك

^*

المؤلف الذي ينبغي توجيه المراسلات إليه.

الطاقات 2022 ، 15 (3)، 674؛ https://doi.org/10.3390/en15030674

تاريخ استلام التقديم: ١٢ أكتوبر ٢٠٢١ / تمت المراجعة: ٢١ نوفمبر ٢٠٢١ / تم القبول: 1 يناير 2022 / نُشر في: ١٨ يناير ٢٠٢٢

(تنتمي هذه المقالة إلى العدد الخاص بتصميم وتحليل وتطبيق إلكترونيات الطاقة ومحركات المحركات وأنظمة الطاقة المتجددة )

تحميل

تصفح الأرقام

تقارير المراجعة ملاحظات الإصدارات

خلاصة

The storage of enormous energies is a significant challenge for electrical generation. Researchers have studied energy storage methods and increased efficiency for many years. In recent years, researchers have been exploring new materials and techniques to store more significant amounts of energy more efficiently. In particular, renewable energy sources and electric vehicle technologies are triggering these scientific studies. Scientists and manufacturers recently proposed the supercapacitor (SC) as an alternating or hybrid storage device. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of SC applications and their developments. Accordingly, a detailed literature review was first carried out. The historical results of SCs are revealed in this paper. The structure, working principle, and materials of SC are given in detail to be analysed more effectively. The advantages and disadvantages, market profile, and new technologies with manufacturer corporations are investigated to produce a techno-economic analysis of SCs. The electric vehicle, power systems, hybrid energy storage systems with integration of renewable energy sources, and other applications of SCs are investigated in this paper. Additionally, SC modelling design principles with charge and discharge tests are explored. Other components and their price to produce a compact module for high power density are also investigated.

Keywords:

supercapacitor; materials; application of supercapacitors; modelling of supercapacitors; performance of supercapacitors

1. Introduction

الأحداث الطبيعية المتكررة والوقود الأحفوري هي مصادر الطاقة الأساسية. تخزين وتنظيم الطاقة هي مشكلة فورية لهذه المصادر [ 1 ]. يجب أن تحافظ الطاقة على إمكاناتها الهائلة الحجم لتزويدها دون انقطاع [ 2 ]. يتم تحويل مصادر الطاقة إلى أشكال مختلفة وتخزينها جزئيًا في نظام الشبكة لتقليل ذروة الطاقة [ 3 ]. علاوة على ذلك، يمكن تخزين هذه المصادر للفجوات القابلة للانقطاع والزمنية بين توليد الطاقة واستهلاك المستخدم النهائي [ 4 ]. تخزين طاقة المياه في السدود [ 5 ] وتخزين الطاقة على شكل هيدروجين [ 6 ] وأجهزة التخزين الكهروكيميائية [ 7 ] هي أنظمة التخزين الأساسية المستخدمة اليوم. من الممكن تخزين الطاقة كطاقة كهربائية مباشرة باستخدام أجهزة التخزين الكهروكيميائية [ 3 ، 8 ]. ومع ذلك، فإن عمر أجهزة التخزين التقليدية هذه أقل من نصف عمر المكثف الفائق (SC)، ومعظمها يحتوي على بعض الملوثات الضارة بالطبيعة، ولديها بعض العيوب الفنية [ 8 ، 9 ]. على الرغم من أن بطاريات التدفق القائمة على الحديد لها عمر طويل وهي صديقة للبيئة، إلا أن كثافة الطاقة لديها أقل بسبب العديد من المحاليل المائية [ 8 ]. وبالتالي، كان العلماء يبحثون في أجهزة التخزين ذات السعة الكبيرة والعمر الطويل لسنوات عديدة [ 10 ، 11 ].

اقترح العلماء الخلايا الجذعية كحل بديل للتطبيقات الفردية والهجينة مع أجهزة تخزين أخرى [ 12 ]. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، كمصدر للطاقة للمركبات الكهربائية والهجينة، تُستخدم الخلايا الجذعية بشكل متزايد كمخزن مؤقت للطاقة للفرامل المتجددة [ 13 ]. تتمتع الخلايا الجذعية بالعديد من المزايا، بما في ذلك كثافة الطاقة العالية، ووقت الشحن والتفريغ السريع، ومقاومة الإدخال المنخفضة، وعمر افتراضي ممتد، وهي صديقة للبيئة [ 3 ، 14 ]. تم اقتراح وتطبيق العديد من طوبولوجيات التهجين خلال العقد الماضي لزيادة كثافة الطاقة وعمر دورة أنظمة تخزين الطاقة [ 15 ، 16 ، 17 ، 18 ]. تحفز أحدث التقنيات وضع الخلايا الجذعية في منافسة مباشرة مع البطاريات القابلة لإعادة الشحن [ 19 ]. وبالتالي، تم التحقيق في الأنشطة الكهروكيميائية لبعض المواد ومركباتها للحصول على طرق محتملة لتطبيق هذه المواد في بطاريات ليثيوم أيون في المستقبل [ 9 ، 19 ]. يمكن للخلايا الجذعية تخزين الطاقة الكهربائية كجهاز الحالة الصلبة للتغلب على العديد من أوجه القصور في البطاريات [ 13 ].

تم اختراع المكثفات ذات الحالة الصلبة في منتصف القرن التاسع عشر، ولها تاريخ جديد. أولاً، صمم مهندسو شركة جنرال إلكتريك (GE) المكثفات في أوائل الخمسينيات و1957. تم تطوير أول مكثف ذات حالة صلبة بدون طبقة مزدوجة معروفة بواسطة بيكر [ 20 ]. قامت شركة SOHIO بتوسيع نسخة أخرى من المكثف ذات الحالة الصلبة في عام 1966، وتم تسجيل براءة اختراعها كمكثف كهربائي [ 21 ، 22 ]. تم تطوير أول مكثفات ذات حالة صلبة للتطبيقات العسكرية بواسطة معهد بيناكل للأبحاث (PRI) في عام 1982، والتي تسمى مكثفات PRI الفائقة. في نهاية عام 1980، زادت تيارات الشحن والتفريغ، اعتمادًا على زيادة قيم السعة، وانخفضت قيم المقاومة التسلسلية المكافئة (ESR). في عام 1992، تولت مختبرات ماكسويل هذا التطوير وأطلقت عليها اسم "مكثفات التعزيز" للتأكيد على تطبيقات الطاقة الخاصة بها [ 23 ]. قام إيفانز بتطوير مكثف كهربائي عالي الجهد من التنتالوم في عام 1994، والذي جمع بين خصائص المكثفات الكهربائية والكهروكيميائية؛ ومع ذلك، فقد اقتصر على تطبيقات عسكرية محددة [ 24 ، 25 ]. تجمع مكثفات أيون الليثيوم التي طورتها مؤخرًا شركة مجموعة FDK، والتي تسمى المكثفات الهجينة، بين قطب كربون كهروستاتيكي وقطب كهروكيميائي لزيادة قيمة السعة [ 26 ، 27 ]. تهدف أبحاث SC اليوم إلى تحسين خصائص SC وزيادة الأداء وتقليل تكاليف الإنتاج [ 28 ، 29 ].

يختلف هيكل SC عن المكثف الخزفي أو الإلكتروليتي. يتكون من قطبين صلبين مستقطبين بجهد مطبق ومفصولين بواسطة فاصل غشائي وإلكتروليت سائل [ 30 ، 31 ]. يتكون مكثف الطبقة المزدوجة الكهربائية (EDL)، والذي يُسمى أيضًا المكثف الفائق، من أيونات في الإلكتروليت تشكل مكثفات طبقة مزدوجة كهربائية ذات قطبية معاكسة للأقطاب [ 3 ، 30 ]. تُعد السعة ثنائية الطبقة أحد مبدأي التخزين، حيث يتم تحقيق التخزين الكهروستاتيكي عن طريق فصل الشحنة في طبقة هلمهولتز المزدوجة وزيادة سعة SCs [ 32 ، 33 ]. النوع الآخر من التخزين الكهروكيميائي هو السعة الزائفة، والتي يتم الوصول إليها من خلال تفاعلات الأكسدة والاختزال الفارادية. لا يمكن فصل هذين المبدأين إلا من خلال تقنيات القياس [ 23 ].

تنشأ وظائف وخصائص SC من التأثير المتبادل لمواد الأقطاب والإلكتروليتات الخاصة بها. عادةً ما تكون مادة القطب لمكثفات EDL عبارة عن الكربون المنشط وقماش ألياف الكربون والهلام الهوائي والجرافيت والجرافين وأنابيب الكربون النانوية في مظاهر مختلفة من الكربون [ 33 ، 34 ، 35 ]. تستخدم المادة شبه السعوية بوليمرات موصلة للإلكترون ذات معدل ESR منخفض وسعة عالية ودورات، لأنه لا يمكن استخدام كل مادة كقطب للمكثفات الكاذبة [ 36 ، 37 ]. تجمع SCs من النوع الهجين بين قطبين بسعة زائفة عالية وسعة مزدوجة الطبقة مصنوعة من مواد قائمة على الكربون [ 38 ]. أثر تطوير أقطاب المكثفات الفائقة من النوع الهجين على أقطاب البطاريات القابلة لإعادة الشحن [ 39 ] بشكل إيجابي. فيما يتعلق بمواد الإلكتروليت، تتكون الإلكتروليتات من مذيب ومواد كيميائية مذابة. لتحسين التوصيل الكهربائي، يلزم وجود المزيد من الأيونات في الإلكتروليتات والمحاليل المائية والعضوية والأيونية المستخدمة [ 40 ]. يُفصل القطبان فيزيائيًا بواسطة فواصل لمنع حدوث ماس كهربائي، ويجب أن يكونا رفيعين ومساميين لتقليل المقاومة التسلسلية المكافئة (ESR). بشكل عام، تُستخدم مكونات غير مكلفة للفواصل؛ بينما تستخدم التصميمات الأكثر تعقيدًا أغشية بوليمرية مسامية غير منسوجة، أو ألياف زجاجية منسوجة، أو ألياف سيراميك منسوجة مسامية [ 41 ]. وأخيرًا، تتصل الأقطاب الكهربائية بمجمعات التيار في أطراف المكثف لتوزيع تيارات الذروة العالية.

تجعل مزايا الخلايا الشمسية متفوقة على أجهزة التخزين الأخرى، في حين أن لها أيضًا بعض العيوب. بمقارنة الفوائد والعيوب، يبدو من المعقول استخدامها معًا [ 3 ، 14 ]. ترتبط مزايا وعيوب أجهزة التخزين الكهروكيميائية المختلفة بقيم كثافة الطاقة والقدرة وفترة الشحن [ 42 ]. تمت مقارنة تحليلات أداء الخلايا الشمسية بأجهزة التخزين الأخرى في العديد من الدراسات، والتي أظهرت أن استخدام الخلايا الشمسية مع أجهزة التخزين الأخرى أمر معقول من نواحٍ عديدة [ 43 ، 44 ، 45 ]. تم التحقيق في هذه التفوقات لأنظمة تخزين الطاقة الهجينة الكهروضوئية (PV) - البطارية الخلايا الشمسية أو خلايا الوقود بما في ذلك أنظمة تخزين الطاقة الهجينة ( HESSs ) في بعض الدراسات [ 49 ، 50 ] . قامت بعض الدراسات بمحاكاة ومقارنة أنظمة HESS من حيث عمر البطارية والتكاليف اليومية [ 12 ، 43 ]. وقد أعطت تحليلات الأداء والتكلفة نتائج أفضل لـ SCs بما في ذلك أنظمة HESS [ 51 ، 52 ، 53 ].

الشركات التجارية وحالات المنتجات وهيكل السوق والتطورات الجديدة في السوق هي النقاط الأساسية الأخرى التي يجب التحقيق فيها بمزيد من التفصيل لتوضيح الاتجاه المستقبلي لـ SCs. بلغت مبيعات SC العالمية حوالي 400 مليون دولار أمريكي منذ عام 2016 [ 54 ]. نما سوق البطاريات من 47.5 مليار إلى 95 مليار دولار أمريكي [ 55 ]. لا يزال سوق SC صغيرًا؛ ومع ذلك، فمن المتوقع أن تنمو المبيعات بزيادة سنوية تبلغ حوالي 24٪، من 240 مليون إلى 2 مليار دولار أمريكي بحلول عام 2026 [ 56 ]. بلغت تكاليف SC في عام 2006 0.01 دولار أمريكي/F أو 2.85 دولار أمريكي/kJ، وانتقلت في عام 2008 إلى أقل من 0.01 دولار أمريكي/F، وتنخفض كل عام [ 57 ]. تحتوي المكثفات الكهربائية ثنائية الطبقة الحالية (EDLCs) على إلكتروليتات عضوية تعمل عند 2.7 فولت وتصل إلى كثافة طاقة تتراوح بين 5-8 واط/كجم أو 7-10 واط/لتر [ 58 ]. واليوم، تقدم إحدى الشركات التجارية وحدة مكثف فائق 48 فولت مع 1,000,000 دورة عمل أو عمر تيار مستمر لمدة عشر سنوات وجهد تشغيل تيار مستمر 48 فولت [ 59 ]. تم تصميم الوحدات خصيصًا للحافلات الهجينة ومعدات البناء لتوفير حلول فعالة من حيث التكلفة. ومع ذلك، فهي تُستخدم أيضًا على نطاق واسع في تطبيقات الإلكترونيات لموازنة الخلايا [ 60 ، 61 ].

تتمتع SC ببعض المزايا في التطبيقات ذات كثافة الطاقة العالية، ويتطلب الأمر العديد من دورات الشحن والتفريغ لعمر أطول. التطبيقات العامة لـ SCs هي لفترات أقصر من الطاقة المنخفضة إلى العالية، ولا تُستخدم للتيارات المتناوبة (AC). توجد بعض تطبيقات SCs في الإلكترونيات الاستهلاكية [ 62 ، 63 ] والأدوات وإمدادات الطاقة [ 64 ] وتثبيت الجهد [ 65 ] والشبكات الصغيرة [ 66 ] وتخزين الطاقة المتجددة [ 3 ] وحصاد الطاقة [ 67 ، 68 ] ومصابيح الشوارع [ 69 ] والتطبيقات الطبية [ 70 ] والتطبيقات العسكرية والسيارات [ 71 ، 72 ، 73 ] واستعادة الطاقة [ 74 ، 75 ، 76 ، 77 ]. سيتم استكشاف هذه بمزيد من التفصيل مع الأمثلة في الأقسام التالية. هناك حاجة إلى بروتوكولات اختبار موحدة للتطبيقات التي تتراوح من التيارات المنخفضة إلى العالية الذروة [ 78 ]. وقد حسب تقرير حالي أنه إذا استخدمت نسبة قليلة فقط من أنظمة الهجين المعتدلة 48 فولت تقنية حلاقة الذروة في الخلايا الشمسية خلال عشر سنوات، فسوف تنشأ سوق إضافية سنوية للخلايا الشمسية تزيد قيمتها عن 0.5 مليار دولار أمريكي في عام 2030 [ 79 ].

نمذجة SC ومحاكاة الشحنة والتفريغ لتحديد السعة والمقاومة الداخلية هي موضوع بحث آخر. تم العثور على بعض الدراسات الأولية في الأدبيات حيث تم التحقيق في الخصائص المختلفة والبنية الديناميكية لـ SCs ومحاكاتها [ 80، 81، 82، 83، 84، 85، 86 ] . صمم زوبيتا وفاراندا نموذج دائرة كهربائية مكافئة لمحاكاة مناسبة لتطبيقات الطاقة [ 87 ، 88 ]. في دراسات أخرى ، تم استخدام نموذج دائرة كهربائية ثنائي الفروع لمحاكاة وحدة SC [ 89 ، 90 ، 91 ]. كما تمت مناقشة طريقة تستخدم لتحديد بعض معلمات دائرة SC المكافئة تجريبياً في الأدبيات [ 90 ، 92 ]. مطلوب نموذج وحدة SC مبسط في عمليات المحاكاة في الوقت الفعلي [ 93 ]. يتم إنشاء SCs بناءً على نموذج دائرة مكافئة مبسط للتحقيق في أداء مكدس SC [ 93 ، 94 ]. هذه المجموعة، والتي تسمى وحدة، مصممة خصيصًا لتوفير حلول لتطبيقات الإلكترونيات الصناعية [ 59 ، 93 ]. تم تصميم وحدة باستخدام 20 قطعة من خلايا SC 310 F و 2.7 V. تم إجراء اختبارات الشحن والتفريغ لظروف الحمل المختلفة لكل مكثف ووحدة وتم تأكيدها بنتائج المحاكاة [ 95 ]. موضوع آخر يتعلق بتطوير خلايا SC هو تجميع وتصنيع خلايا SC. تصميمات خلايا SC الثلاثة واسعة الانتشار المستخدمة تجاريًا هي الخلايا المعدنية والخلايا الأسطوانية والخلايا الجيبية. [ 96 ، 97 ، 98 ، 99 ].

تهدف هذه الورقة إلى دراسة أنظمة الطاقة الشمسية من جوانب متعددة، وعرض النتائج للقراء. بدايةً، تم تفصيل تاريخ وتطور أنظمة الطاقة الشمسية في المقدمة. أما القسم الثاني، فيتناول هيكل أنظمة الطاقة الشمسية، ومبادئ عملها، وموادها. أما القسم الثالث، فيتناول التحليلات التقنية والاقتصادية لأنظمة الطاقة الشمسية، والتي تشمل المزايا، وتحليلات السوق، والاتجاهات والتقنيات الجديدة، وشركات التصنيع. أما القسم الرابع، فيتناول المركبات الكهربائية، وأنظمة الطاقة، والأنظمة الهجينة، وتطبيقات أنظمة الطاقة الشمسية الأخرى. أما الأقسام الأخيرة، فتتناول متطلبات نموذج أنظمة الطاقة الشمسية، وتصميم الوحدة، واختبارات الشحن والتفريغ، ومكوناتها الأخرى، وتحليلات أسعار الأنظمة المدمجة.

2. أساسيات المكثفات الفائقة

2.1. الهيكل والمواصفات

يُلخّص هذا القسم بنية المكثفات الكهروستاتيكية، ومبدأ عملها، ومواصفاتها، وتصنيفاتها، وموادها. يعتمد المفهوم الأساسي للمكثفات الكهروستاتيكية على المكثفات الكهروستاتيكية، وهو مُوضّح في المعادلة (1). في هذه المعادلة، تُوضّح نفاذية الهواء ( ε ₀ )، والنفاذية النسبية للمادة العازلة ( ε _r )، ومساحة السطح ( A )، والمسافة بين قطبين كهربائيين ( d ) في الشكل 1 أ [ 94 ]. تُعدّل السعة بتغيير مساحة سطح المادة العازلة وسمكها وفقًا للعلاقة الواردة في المعادلة (1).

ج = \frac{ε_{0} \times ε_{ر} \times أ}{د}

$C = \frac{ε_{0} \times ε_{r} \times A}{d}$

(1)

الشكل 1. ( أ ) بنية المكثف الكهروستاتيكي [ 94 ]، ( ب ) بنية المكثف الكهروستاتيكي [ 101 ]، ( ج ) نموذج الدائرة المكافئة للمكثف الكهروستاتيكي [ 102 ].

يتكون الهيكل الأساسي للخلية ذات الشحنة الواحدة من مجمعات تيار من الألومنيوم وأقطاب كهربائية بدلاً من المواد العازلة. يعتمد مبدأ تشغيلها على تخزين الطاقة عن طريق توزيع الأيونات بالقرب من سطح القطبين الكهربائيين. تُنشئ الواجهتان منطقة شحن فراغية تُسمى الطبقة الكهربائية المزدوجة (EDL)، كما هو موضح في الشكل 1 ب. لذلك، تكون الخلية ذات شحنة كهربائية ساكنة، ولا يحدث فيها أي تفاعل كهروكيميائي [ 100 ، 101 ].

نموذج الدائرة الكهربائية المكافئة لدائرة SC موضح في الشكل 1 ج. هنا، ترمز المقاومة المتسلسلة ( Rs ) للمكثف إلى المقاومة المتسلسلة المكافئة (ESR). في المقابل، تمثل المقاومة المتوازية ( Rp ) عبر المكثف المقاومة المقدرة وفقًا لتيارات التسرب، وتمثل السعة ( C _SC ) السعة الكلية لدوائر SC. يمكن استخدام المعلمات المذكورة في بيانات الكتالوج لحساب أقصى تيار ذروة في ثانية وقيمة القدرة القصوى المحددة، كما هو موضح في المعادلتين (2) و(3) [ 102 ].

الحد الأقصى قمة حاضِر (1 ثانية) = \frac{\frac{1}{2} . ج . الخامس}{ج . {معدل ترسيب كرات الدم الحمراء}_{دي سي} + 1}

$Maximum Peak Current (1 \sec) = \frac{\frac{1}{2} . C . V}{C . {ESR}_{DC} + 1}$

(2)

ص_{الأعلى} (محدد قوة) = \frac{{الخامس}^{2}}{4 . {معدل ترسيب كرات الدم الحمراء}_{دي سي} . كتلة}

$P_{\max} (Specific Power) = \frac{V^{2}}{4 . {ESR}_{DC} . mass}$

(3)

الخصائص الرئيسية لخلايا SC هي انخفاض الطاقة وكثافة الطاقة العالية والشحن والتفريغ السريع وإنهاء تدفق الطاقة عند الشحن الكامل ومقاومة داخلية ضئيلة (ESR) وعمر تخزين طويل وعمر افتراضي ممتد. تجعل مزايا خلايا SC متفوقة على أجهزة التخزين التقليدية الأخرى في نواحٍ عديدة. بمقارنة تميزاتها وعيوبها، يبدو أن استخدام خلايا SC مع أجهزة تخزين أخرى مناسب [ 42 ]. خلايا SC هي مكونات ذات جهد منخفض وتتطلب تشغيلًا آمنًا، حيث يظل الجهد ضمن حدود محددة. يتم تصنيف خلايا SC القياسية ذات الإلكتروليتات المائية ضمن نطاق جهد يتراوح من 2.1 إلى 2.3 فولت، ويتم تصنيف خلايا SC ذات المذيبات العضوية من 2.5 إلى 2.7 فولت [ 40 ]. بالنسبة لمتطلبات الجهد الأعلى، يتم توصيل خلايا SC على التوالي. تتراوح قيمة السعة المقدرة بين 1 فهرنهايت إلى 1000 فهرنهايت؛ بالنسبة للتطبيقات الأعلى، تكون السعات مطلوبة لتوصيل خلايا SC بالتوازي [ 3 ، 95 ]. يوضح الشكل 2 أن الخلايا الجذعية قادرة على ربط البطاريات والمكثفات [ 94 ، 103 ، 104 ]. كثافة الطاقة في الخلايا الجذعية أكبر من تلك الموجودة في المكثفات التقليدية؛ ومع ذلك، فإن كثافة الطاقة في المكثفات أكبر من تلك الموجودة في الخلايا الجذعية.

الشكل 2. مقارنة كثافة الطاقة والقدرة لأجهزة التخزين [ 103 ].

2.2. التصنيفات

يمكن تصنيف SCs بناءً على تفاصيل تصنيعها وبنائها. يمكن تصنيع SCs في أشكال مسطحة أو أسطوانية أو مستطيلة [ 105 ، 106 ]. يعتمد مبدأ تشغيل SCs على تخزين الطاقة، وبناءً على طريقة تخزين الطاقة، يتم تقسيم SCs إلى ثلاث مجموعات رئيسية. يمكن تقسيم SCs إلى EDLCs و pseudocapacitors (PCs) بناءً على طريقة تخزين الطاقة. يحدث تخزين الشحنة بين الإلكتروليت والأقطاب الكهربائية في EDLC، كما هو موضح في الشكل 1 ب. تتضمن PCs تفاعلات أكسدة فارادية عكسية وسريعة للشحنة من أجل زيادة سعة SC، كما هو موضح في الشكل 3 أ. يخزن المكثف الفائق الهجين (HSC) الشحنات عن طريق مطابقة قطب الكربون السعوي مع قطب شبه سعوي أو قطب إدخال الليثيوم، كما هو موضح في الشكل 3 ب [ 107 ، 108 ، 109 ].

الشكل 3. ( أ ) تكوين المكثف الزائف (PC) و ( ب ) المكثف الفائق الهجين (HSC) [ 109 ].

تتكون EDLCs من مادتين كهربائيتين قائمتين على الكربون، وكمية كافية من الإلكتروليتات، وفاصل. يمكن لـ EDLCs تخزين الشحنات إما كهروستاتيكيًا أو عبر طريقة غير فاراداي، دون نقل أحمال الشحنة باستخدام مبدأ تخزين الطبقة المزدوجة الكهروكيميائية [ 108 ، 110 ، 111 ]. تتمتع الأنواع الثلاثة الرئيسية من EDLCs بحالة محددة لمادة الكربون. الأنابيب النانوية الكربونية (CNTs)، والجرافين، والهلام الهوائي الكربوني والرغوة، والكربون المشتق من الكربيد (CDC)، والكربون المنشط هي الأنواع الرئيسية للمكثفات الكاذبة، كما هو موضح في الشكل 4. [ 100 ]. تخزن أجهزة الكمبيوتر الشحنات عبر عملية فاراداي تتضمن نقل أحمال الشحنة كهروستاتيكيًا [ 112 ]. عندما يتم تطبيق جهد على المكثفات الكاذبة، يحدث الاختزال والأكسدة في مادة القطب ويمر تيار فاراداي عبر خلية SC. تؤدي عملية فارادا هذه إلى مكثفات زائفة ذات كثافات طاقة أعلى من مكثفات EDLC. يتضمن هذا النوع من المكثفات أكاسيد معدنية وكربون مشوب بالمعادن ومواد أقطاب كهربائية بوليمرية موصلة [ 113 ]. تتميز أنواع البوليمرات الموصلة من SCs بسعة عالية وESR منخفض وتكلفة منخفضة مقارنة بـ EDLCs القائمة على الكربون. ومع ذلك، فإن المكثفات الزائفة لها أيضًا كثافة طاقة أقل ودورة حياة أقصر، اعتمادًا على تفاعلات الأكسدة والاختزال في SC [ 100 ، 108 ]. يوفر نظام SC الهجين اتحادًا لمصدر طاقة قطب كهربائي يشبه البطارية مع مصدر طاقة لقطب كهربائي يشبه المكثف في نفس الخلية [ 108 ، 114 ]. يتكون هذا النوع من SC من أقطاب كهربائية قابلة للاستقطاب، مثل الكربون، وأقطاب كهربائية غير قابلة للاستقطاب، مثل المعدن أو البوليمر الموصل. تحصل العمليات الفارادية وغير الفارادية على تخزين عالي للطاقة من خلال كلا القطبين [ 33 ، 100 ، 115 ]. ركز باحثو الخلايا الجذعية على الأنواع الثلاثة الحالية من الخلايا الجذعية الهجينة، والتي تتميز بتكوينات أقطابها: غير المتماثلة والمركبة ونوع البطارية [ 28 ، 108 ]. تسمى الخلايا الجذعية الهجينة التي تظهر في المقام الأول سعة كهروستاتيكية وسعة كهروكيميائية أخرى بالبطاريات الفائقة [ 106 ، 116 ].

الشكل 4. مخطط تصنيف الخلايا الجذعية [ 9 ، 100 ].

2.3. المواد

The electrolyte type and electrode material determine SC characteristics, and in recent years there have been some comprehensive studies in this area [106]. According to current reports, it is expected that materials will control SC performance and cost in the future. These reports include the percentage of new research on hierarchical and hexahedral electrodes [79,117]. SC materials are mainly investigated as electrode materials, electrolyte materials, separators, and collectors.

SC electrodes are generally thin sheets that are electrically connected to a conductive current collector. The environmentally friendly and low-cost electrodes must have good conductivity, low corrosion resistance, and long-time chemical stability [9,106]. The different types of carbon electrode materials commonly used in SCs include activated carbon (AC), carbon aerogel, graphene, graphite, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [32,33,34,35]. Activated carbon is enough for SC EDLC electrodes, although its electrical conductivity is much lower than metals. One of the most used electrode materials for SCs is a solid form activated carbon called consolidated amorphous carbon (CAC) [23,33]. Activated carbon fibres (ACF) have a diameter of about 10 µm and are derived from activated carbon [118]. Carbide derived carbon (CDC) is a family of tuneable and nanoporous carbon materials [119,120]. The other most widely used materials are random porous carbons, due to their advantages [121]. Graphene atoms, also called nanocomposite paper atoms, are arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern as seen in Figure 5a [122,123,124,125]. MnO₂ and RuO₂ electrode materials are also used for pseudocapacitors since they act as capacitive electrodes and exhibit Faradaic behaviour, as seen in Figure 5b. Pseudocapacitors occur within the active electrode materials created through Faradaic redox reactions and provide a high specific energy. All the commercial hybrid SCs are asymmetric, and they integrate an electrode [106,126].

Figure 5. (a) Scanning probe microscopy image of graphene, (b) pseudocapacitance surface of RuO₂ cathode [126].

Although most of the studies are focused on electrode materials of electrolytes, there are also significant studies on SC performance. The electrolyte consists of a solvent and dissolved chemicals that makes it electrically conductive and increases the quantity of ions in the electrolyte [9,106]. Electrolytes influence the operational voltage window of cells and their resistance [114]. Aqueous, organic, and ionic liquid electrolytes are currently available for SCs [94]. The electrolyte determines the SC’s operating characteristics [127]. Water is a perfect solvent for inorganic chemicals and aqueous electrolytes. Aqueous electrolytes are used in SCs with high specific power and low specific energy density, which have a 1.15 V dissociation voltage per electrode [106,128]. Electrolytes with organic solvents have a higher separation voltage and a temperature range; however, they are more expensive [106,128,129]. Ionic electrolytes consist of liquid salts, and they enable capacitor voltages above 3.5 V s. In addition, they have lower ionic conductivity than the other electrolytes [40].

Although much progress has been made in improving the electrode performance, in SCs, separators can negatively influence the performance of SCs to depend on the poorly designed dividers [9]. The separator can be very thin and must be very porous to minimise ESR. Developed polymer-based separators with low cost, high flexibility, and porosity lead the separator markets [41,94,106,130]. The majority of energy storage devices require collectors to connect the capacitor electrodes and supplement the performance of SCs, because of the active material’s insufficient conductivity. Additionally, they must carry high charge and discharge currents [94,106,131]. Sealing in cell mounting is very important to prevent performance loss in the SC. Aluminium metal should be used in collectors to prevent a corrosive galvanic cell housing [9,106]. A sealant material’s duty is to prevent foreign contaminants from entering the cell that can cause electrolyte disruption, surface oxidation, and the loss of life cycle [94].

3. Techno-Economic Analyses of Supercapacitors

As the use of SCs in the energy and transportation sectors has increased, the cycle life, performance reliability, and cost have become important parameters [10]. The traditional applications of SCs are in short-term power for global system for mobile (GSM) communication bursts and high brightness flashes in cell phones, hybrid battery–SC systems for uninterruptable power supplies (UPSs) and power-quality enhancers, automotive systems for integrated starter generator applications, power tools, and extra high-power short-autonomy-time UPS systems without batteries [31]. After a stable period, the SC market has now entered into a continuous period of vigorous growth. Three large companies’ last actions have triggered this. According to a report; “Supercapacitor: Applications, Players, Markets 2020–2040”, it is foreseen that a yearly additional SC market of over 0.5 billion USD will emerge in 2030 if only a few per cent of 48 V mild hybrids adopt SC peak shaving in ten years [79]. This foresight indicates the need to explore the SC techno-economy in detail. The advantages and disadvantages of SC, the market structure, product analyses and evaluation, new manufacturing technologies, and manufacturing corporations are investigated in this section in more detail.

The main advantages and drawbacks of SCs are compared in Figure 6 [14]. Although they have some drawbacks, the benefits of SCs give them superiority over the other storage devices in many ways. Comparing the advantages and disadvantages, using them in some applications with the other storage devices seems reasonable [3,12].

Figure 6. The main advantages and drawbacks of SCs.

The comparison of the advantages and drawbacks of lead-acid, lithium-ion, redox-flow batteries, and SCs is shown in Table 1. Although the specific energy density is greater for lithium-ion batteries, specific power density is greater for SCs, at a value more than ten times the others. The cycle life is also very high for SCs; however, the charge and discharge efficiency is better for lithium-ion batteries. The SC charge and discharge time is under one minute. The calendar life is about 20 years for SC, and the costs are lower than the lithium-ion batteries and decrease with every passing day [3,12,42,44,45]. Although the iron-based flow batteries have a long life and are environmentally friendly, they have a lower energy and power density [8,132].

Table 1. Comparison of SCs with different types of batteries [3,12,132].

The top global EDLC manufacturers, start-ups, and companies are summarised in Table 2 with their centred country, estimated financings for start-ups, and revenue data. Revenue is based on fourth-quarter reported values and was converted to US dollars [133].

Table 2. Top 12 SC manufacturers in the world and their primary information [133].

SC devices from these manufacturers have capacitances in the range of 1200–5000 F, shallow direct current (DC) equivalent series resistance (ESR) values of less than one mΩ, short circuit current in the field of 600–2400 A, and per cell energy-storage capabilities in the range of 0.6–3 Wh. Table 3 indicates some representative devices.

Table 3. A comparison of single-cell SCs for fast energy delivery applications [31].

Some of the different commercial SC devices and their dimensions are given in Figure 7a. Their rated voltage can be 2.7–2.8 V, as mentioned in Table 3. They can be produced as a cylindrical or prismatic type cell. The Maxwell Technologies and LS Mtron Corporations offer different voltage module SCs with a high cycle life and 48 V DC working voltage, as shown in Figure 7b. Temperature output, active cell balancing, and high power density are the main features of these modules. The SC modules are designed to provide cost-effective construction equipment and hybrid bus solutions, specifically. They are also widely utilised in telecommunications, power supply, and other applications [59,102,134]. They are a reliable solution for these sensitive works and consumers; however, they are an expensive solution for the widespread use of SCs in energy storage. The details of the module design specifications are investigated in more detail in the last section.

Figure 7. (a) Different types of SC commercial devices, (b) two different corporations’ SC modules.

4. Applications of SC

The SC has many advantages in applications with a high power density, and many charge/discharge cycles or a longer life are required. SCs are used in wind turbines, mobile base stations, electronic devices, and different industrial practices [135,136,137]. In addition, they have started to be used in UPS, electric vehicles, and various power electronics applications, thanks to their superiority over lead-acid batteries [138,139,140,141]. In recent years, SCs have been used as an energy storage device for voltage stability in renewable and hybrid energy storage systems to regulate the source and grid [3,10,141]. SCs can stabilise the power supply in applications with fluctuating loads [142]. SCs deliver power for flashes, which can be charged quickly [62,143], and portable speakers [144]. Reducing energy consumption and CO₂ emissions is a primary difficulty of all transportation systems, and braking energy recovery can reduce both. Many applications in all kinds of vehicles require elements that can rapidly store and deliver energy, and SCs fulfil these requirements. Some SC applications include consumer electronics [62,63], tools, power supply [64], voltage stabilisation [65], microgrid [66], renewable energy storage [3], energy harvesting [67,68], street lights [69], medical applications [70], military and automotive applications [71,72,73], and energy recovery [74,75,76,77]. Some of these examples are given in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Some examples of SC applications.

Multiple variable loads, such as hybrid electrical vehicles (HEVs), electrical vehicle (EV) charge stations, electrical machines, and other power systems, cause current fluctuations and harmonics and power oscillations on the grid [63,64]. SCs can be used between the load and the grid as an interface to overcome these problems [145]. One wireless screwdriver with SCs is charged fully in 90 s, and it can retain 85% of its charged energy after three months left idle [146]. The backup power for actuators in wind turbine pitch systems is also provided by SCs [144]. Photovoltaic and wind energy systems act as a fluctuating supply induced by weather conditions. SCs can stabilise such as voltage fluctuations for power lines by acting as dampeners [66]. SCs can be used for microgrid storage, usually powered by renewable energy which cannot instantaneously match the demand to inject power when the demand increases and the production decreases temporarily [68,147]. SCs are suitable energy harvesting systems for temporary energy storage devices [3]. For example, in Japan’s Niigata Prefecture, Sado City, there are streetlights that combine stand-alone SCs with s power source for storage [69].

Hybrid SCs are also implemented in navigators, sensors, and communication devices based on batteries. The radar system, electromagnetic pulse weapons, torpedoes, etc., can also be operated using a suitable installation of hybrid SCs [148]. Many SC systems for military applications are manufactured by the Tecate Group corporation, as shown in Figure 9 [148]. The radar antenna, airbag exploitation power, avionics, GPS, and missiles are applications that require a high specific power [28].

Figure 9. SCs used for different defence applications.

SCs also fulfil the requirements for some transportation applications, which are given here. Toyota’s Yaris hybrid-R concept car and Peugeot Société Anonymes (PSAs) Peugeot Citroën both use an SC to increase the performance of the vehicles [149]. The Maxwell Technologies manufacturer corporation claimed that several hybrid buses use SC devices to improve acceleration [149]. Batteries can be supplemented with SCs in the starter systems of diesel railroad locomotives with hybrid transmissions [71]. Mobile hybrid rubber tyre gantry cranes use SCs to move stack containers [70]. One hybrid forklift primarily uses fuel cells and batteries, while SCs store the braking energy of buffer power peaks. In 2003, a light-rail vehicle prototype was developed with a roof-mounted SC unit to save braking energy and replace overhead lines in Mannheim [72]. The Paris T3 tram line and Geneva Public Transport tram were powered using SCs to recover the energy during braking in 2012 [150].

The first hybrid bus in Europa with SCs was the so-called “Ultracap Bus” tested in Nuremberg, Germany, in 2001. Then, an electric bus fleet was tested in Luzern, Switzerland, in 2002. After every transportation cycle, the SCs could be recharged within 3 to 4 min with a high-speed power charger [151]. A new type of electric bus using SCs, called the “Capabus”, that moves without power lines and fully charges at the last terminal was tested in Shanghai in 2005 [75]. A Toyota hybrid racing car used a hybrid drivetrain with SCs that was developed every year [152]. More researchers have explored hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) [153,154]. The ability of SCs to charge much faster than batteries, their longer lifetime, stable electrical properties, and wide temperature range make them suitable for electric vehicles. However, SCs’ lower specific energy density makes them unsuitable for long-distance driving as a stand-alone energy source [77]. As of 2013, all EV or HEV automotive manufacturers have developed prototypes to improve driveline efficiency and store braking energy that use SCs instead of batteries [152,155]. Today’s HEV technology has used SCs to develop more topologies using power electronics converters to increase the efficiency of EVs, improve the environmental perspective, and lower cost. [156,157].

An HEV uses different energy sources, including batteries, SCs, and fuel cells (FCs), to power the electric drive system, as seen in Figure 10a. A fraction of the energy exchange capability of the SC can be used in a battery/SC configuration only. Therefore, a hybrid fuel cell/battery/SC configuration still provides the most extended lifetime of the batteries [158,159]. As a solution, a forklift truck project was carried out with a 16 kW power hybrid system, as shown in Figure 10b. An ‘Integrated Fuel Cell Hybrid Test Platform in Electric Forklift’ designed in the Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd. (VTT) consisted of an 8 kW power proton exchange membrane (PEM) type fuel cell, which provided 72 kW of power to Maxwell BOOSTCAP^® (165F, 48 V) SCs and 300 Ah lead-acid batteries [160,161]. Another study reviewed energy systems for light-duty vehicles, and highlighted the main characteristics of electric and hybrid cars based on power train structure. Different topologies and energy management strategies for electric and hybrid vehicle powertrains have been investigated [162,163].

Figure 10. (a) A basic HEV drive system. (b) Hybrid forklift power source DC schema with two SC modules [160].

The comparison of SCs with the other energy storage devices has been investigated for PV–battery–SC systems in the literature, and has been shown that SCs have some advantages [14,42,43,46,47,48]. In addition, PV–battery–SCs or fuel cell combinations as HESSs are suggested as an alternative solution [49,50]. The HESS topologies include passive, active, and semi-active types. A passive HESS consists of the different energy storage devices connected directly to the DC bus without a DC–DC converter. If one side is combined with a DC–DC converter to a DC bus, it is called a semi-active HESS. If two sides of the energy storage devices are connected with converters, it is called an active HESS. The connection topology of HESSs is given in Figure 11a [3,12,43]. The active and passive HESSs were simulated and compared in a case study. While the SC semi-active HESSs performed with lower than 33% battery life, passive HESSs performed with lower than 9% battery life, only in the case of price function results during a day [3,12,43]. In another study, solar irradiance and temperature data were used for a solar farm model in MATLAB/Simulink from four diverse days from the 2017 simulation to define the annual storage cost, and the results showed that the battery + SC HESS cost was 25% cheaper annually [51]. In another study, a passive HESS was proposed for a wind and solar energy stand-alone system and the operation was tested via theoretical simulation and experimentally. The HESS (battery–supercapacitor) for the wind and solar energy-fed basic structure is shown in Figure 11b [164].

Figure 11. (a) A stand-alone active HESS with SC. (b) A HESS for a wind-solar fed system.

Several studies have presented comprehensive reviews of HESS control strategies for power quality improvement in microgrids in the last decade [132]. The increasing use of renewable energy sources and the interruption of the power generated has caused stability, reliability, and power quality problems in the primary electrical grid [165]. The microgrid is very sensitive to load or generation changes, as it is a weak electrical grid, and HESSs are used to decrease the effect of these variations [166]. Battery–supercapacitor HESSs in stand-alone DC microgrids have been reviewed, and a stand-alone photovoltaic-based microgrid with an HESS was presented as a case study [12]. A survey of a battery–supercapacitor HESS for a stand-alone PV power system in rural electrification was presented in a study [167]. A design and performance analysis of a stand-alone PV system with an HESS is given in another survey for a rural area of India. Bidirectional DC to DC converters are also used in controlling, with a fuzzy logic controller as a new control algorithm, as shown in Figure 12 [168].

Figure 12. A sample PV-HESS microgrid system structure for domestic application [168].

5. Modelling and Performance Tests for SCs

The applied voltage to the poles is linearly proportional to the amount of electric charge stored in an SC, which has units of Farads. The voltage distribution among the SC and its simplified equivalent DC circuit model is seen in Figure 13a, as a functionality illustration of an SC. The electrode’s equivalent circuit depends on the porous structure’s capacitance behaviour, and is defined with series and parallel connected RC elements. The voltage behaviour of SCs and batteries differs during charge and discharge intervals, as seen in Figure 13b. The energy is stored in a static electric field in conventional capacitors consisting of two electrodes. The total power increases linearly related to the potential between the plates and the accumulated charges. In contrast, SCs consists of two electrodes separated by a separator and the energy stored inside the double layers of both electrodes. The storage of electrostatic and electrochemical energy in SCs is linear concerning the stored energy charge similarly [106].

Figure 13. (a) The voltage distribution among the SC between simplified equivalent DC circuits. (b) Comparison of SC and battery voltage behaviour during the charge and discharge time.

The SC modelling and charge–discharge characteristics must be investigated differently from conventional storage devices. The capacitance value of an SC can be defined with RC components and time constants, depending on the frequency. The measurement characteristic for measuring capacitance is shown in Figure 14a. The rated voltage has to be applied to charge the capacitor for measurement firstly, and the SC is charged for 30 min. Next, the SC is discharged with a constant discharge current (I_discharge) [169]. Then, for the voltage drop from 80% (V₁) to 40% (V₂) of the rated voltage at the t₁ and t₂ time values is measured, and the capacitance value of the SC is calculated from this Equation (

C = I \frac{Δ t}{Δ v}

$C = I \frac{Δ t}{Δ v}$ ) [106,170]. The internal DC resistance (R_i) of an SC can be calculated with the voltage drop (ΔV₂) obtained from the intersection of the auxiliary line extended from the straight part and from the time base at the time of discharge start, as shown in Figure 14b [29,169].

Figure 14. The charge–discharge characteristics for (a) measuring the capacitance and (b) internal DC resistance measurement conditions.

For SC systems, modelling is necessary for system dimension monitoring conditions. Chemical, mathematical, and electrical characteristics, ageing, artificial intelligence, and the dynamic structure of SC models are available in the literature [80,81,82,83,84,85,86,90]. To describe the behaviour of SCs, a simple electrical model of SCs has also been given in the literature [91]. The module simulation was based on a two-branched SC circuit model [89,90,91,92]. This circuit was simplified for the SC module and is given in Equation (4). The SC module voltage and currents are U_SC and I_SC, and the primary voltage and currents are v_sc and i_sc, respectively [89].

{يو}_{س ج} = ن_{س_س ج} {الخامس}_{س ج} = ن_{س_س ج} ({الخامس}_{1} + ر_{1} . {أنا}_{س ج}) = ن_{س_س ج} ({الخامس}_{1} + ر_{1} \frac{{أنا}_{س ج}}{ن_{ص_س ج}})

$U_{S C} = N_{S_S C} v_{S C} = N_{S_S C} (v_{1} + R_{1} . i_{S C}) = N_{S_S C} (v_{1} + R_{1} \frac{I_{s c}}{N_{P_S C}})$

(4)

Moreover, it considered the equivalent electric circuit with two RC branches proposed by Zubieta and Bonert [90] and Rafik et al. [91]. The calculation used to obtain the relationship between voltage (v₁) and capacitor charge (Q₁) is seen in Equation (5), and can be combined with Equation (4) as in Equation (6).

{الخامس}_{1} = \frac{- ج_{0} + \sqrt{ج_{0}^{2} + 2 ج_{الخامس} س_{1}}}{ج_{الخامس}}

$v_{1} = \frac{- C_{0} + \sqrt{C_{0}^{2} + 2 C_{V} Q_{1}}}{C_{V}}$

(5)

{يو}_{س ج} = ن_{س_س ج} {الخامس}_{س ج} = ن_{س_س ج} ({الخامس}_{1} + ر_{1} . {أنا}_{س ج}) = ن_{س_س ج} (\frac{- ج_{0} + \sqrt{ج_{0}^{2} + 2 ج_{الخامس} س_{1}}}{ج_{الخامس}} + ر_{1} \frac{{أنا}_{س ج}}{ن_{ص_س ج}})

$U_{S C} = N_{S_S C} v_{S C} = N_{S_S C} (v_{1} + R_{1} . i_{S C}) = N_{S_S C} (\frac{- C_{0} + \sqrt{C_{0}^{2} + 2 C_{V} Q_{1}}}{C_{V}} + R_{1} \frac{I_{s c}}{N_{P_S C}})$

(6)

An SC module model was designed in MATLAB/Simulink using these equations, as seen in Figure 15a. Equations (5) and (6) were revised for 310 F SC parameters obtained and calculated in experimental result values and datasheets from previous studies in the simulation [52]. The SC model was simulated for cycle life, and Capacitor ESR measurement waveforms in the datasheet were checked; the results are presented in Figure 15b [102,169].

Figure 15. (a) SC module model in MATLAB/Simulink. (b) CAP/ESR waveforms of SC [169].

Higher source voltages are required when connecting SCs in series. Each component has a slight difference in capacitance value and ESR. Therefore, it is needed to actively or passively balance the SC to balance the applied voltage. Although passive balancing in SCs is supplied with parallel resistors, active balancing includes electronic voltage management that varies the current above a threshold. Active techniques have many advantages over passive methods. In contrast, passive strategies are straightforward, and despite their shortcomings, they are still prevalent, as shown in Figure 16 [171]. However, passive balancing with resistors improves voltage distribution in SCs, because extra currents passing through balancing resistors reduces the energy efficiency of SCs in their application as energy storage devices. The use of circuits has been proposed for active voltage balancing in SCs [61]. Although the load current and cycle stability of SCs are higher than that of rechargeable batteries, the SC life and the number of cycles increase with the lower load current [165].

Figure 16. SC voltage balance (a) resistor, (b) switched resistor, (c) Zener diode circuits.

It is possible to find some products on the market for special rates and offers, and the customers can mount them to reduce the prices. An active voltage balancing SC-assisted surge absorber (SCASA) was developed using a recently patented technique [172]. This patent-pending technique uses an SC-assisted temperature modification apparatus (SCATMA), as shown in Figure 17a. This technique is based on the availability of large EDLC devices with capacitances in the range of 1200–5000 F, shallow ESR values, short circuit current capability in the field of 600–2400 A, and per cell energy storage capabilities in the capacity of 0.6–3 Wh [30]. A six-string supercapacitor protection board used for the module design is shown in Figure 17b [173]. A circuit diagram of the protection board for four capacitors’ balanced storage is shown in Figure 17c. Each SC can have a single metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) or two devices in parallel, connected depending on the selected board. An equivalent MOSFET gives twice the output current and twice the sensitivity to voltage change, connecting two devices in parallel [60]. An example commercial product for the SC module for a modular solution with UPS and advanced technology extended (ATX) power modules is seen in Figure 17d [174].

Figure 17. (a) Implementation of the SCATMA technique. (b) A six-string supercapacitor protection board [173]. (c) A circuit diagram of the protection board [60]. (d) An example commercial product for the SC module [174].

6. Summary of the Literature

The main contributions in the different areas, summarized from the literature, is analysed in this section. A summary of the entire literature review is given in Table 4 in a comparable form for this aim. The main classification and sub-classification with classification details are provided for the references in the table. The general studies mainly included the history, review, and developments of SCs. The energy storage applications are divided into three subgroups as HESSs, EV storage systems, and microgrid applications. The materials studied include the electrode, electrolyte, and the other components. The modelling and characterisation studies are in one other group in the table. The application studies are classified as manufacturer companies and various application studies. The energy storage applications and materials studies are a large portion of these sources.

Table 4. Summary of literature classifications.

The bibliometric mapping of the SC research field showed 964 results over the last five years. As seen in the density visualization map in Figure 18, derived from the bibliometric results, main keywords dominate the existing research. These include graphene, nanostructure, and Ni foam. Interestingly, composites fall slightly outside the intensive region [19].

Figure 18. Bibliometric density mapping of the SC research field in the last five years.

7. Conclusions

The history and developments of SCs were presented in this paper. The structure, working principles, specifications, classifications, and materials were provided as a fundamental of SCs in this paper in a comparable form. The techno-economic analyses of SCs were investigated in many ways, including advantages, markets, new technologies, and manufacturers. The application of SCs were examined for several applications, such as transportation, electric vehicles, hybrid power systems, and military applications, to shine a light for the readers. This paper investigated and shared the SC modelling, performance tests for charge and discharge, and module design specifications. This comprehensive review paper about SCs combined all the studies in a comparable form to inform and inspire the research studied in this area. At last, this study, which dealt with the latest developments in the literature and the market, will fill a gap in and contribute to the literature. The innovations in material technologies mentioned in this article and overcoming the difficulties in application, becoming more efficient, and becoming more attractive in the market in terms of price seem to be the most critical challenges for the widespread use of SCs.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.E.Ş. and F.B.; Methodology, M.E.Ş.; Validation F.B. and A.S.; investigation, M.E.Ş.; writing—review and editing, M.E.Ş., F.B. and A.S.; supervision, F.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Scientific & TechnologicalResearch Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), 2219 postdoctoral research program.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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الشكل 1. ( أ ) بنية المكثف الكهروستاتيكي [ 94 ]، ( ب ) بنية المكثف الكهروستاتيكي [ 101 ]، ( ج ) نموذج الدائرة المكافئة للمكثف الكهروستاتيكي [ 102 ].

الشكل 2. مقارنة كثافة الطاقة والقدرة لأجهزة التخزين [ 103 ].

الشكل 4. مخطط تصنيف الخلايا الجذعية [ 9 ، 100 ].

الشكل 5. ( أ ) صورة مجهرية مسح المسبار للجرافين، ( ب ) سطح السعة الكاذبة لكاثود RuO2 _[ 126 ] .

الشكل 6. المزايا والعيوب الرئيسية لـ SCs.

الشكل 7. ( أ ) أنواع مختلفة من أجهزة SC التجارية، ( ب ) وحدتي SC لشركتين مختلفتين.

الشكل 8. بعض الأمثلة على تطبيقات SC.

الشكل 9. الخلايا الجذعية المستخدمة في تطبيقات الدفاع المختلفة.

الشكل 10. ( أ ) نظام محرك HEV أساسي. ( ب ) مخطط مصدر طاقة الرافعة الشوكية الهجينة DC مع وحدتي SC [ 160 ].

الشكل 11. ( أ ) نظام HESS نشط مستقل مع SC. ( ب ) نظام HESS لنظام يتغذى على طاقة الرياح والطاقة الشمسية.

الشكل 12. نموذج لهيكل نظام الشبكة الكهربائية الصغيرة PV-HESS للاستخدام المنزلي [ 168 ].

الشكل 13. ( أ ) توزيع الجهد بين SC بين دوائر التيار المستمر المكافئة المبسطة. ( ب ) مقارنة سلوك جهد SC والبطارية أثناء وقت الشحن والتفريغ.

Figure 14. The charge–discharge characteristics for (a) measuring the capacitance and (b) internal DC resistance measurement conditions.

Figure 15. (a) SC module model in MATLAB/Simulink. (b) CAP/ESR waveforms of SC [169].

Figure 16. SC voltage balance (a) resistor, (b) switched resistor, (c) Zener diode circuits.

Figure 17. (a) Implementation of the SCATMA technique. (b) A six-string supercapacitor protection board [173]. (c) A circuit diagram of the protection board [60]. (d) An example commercial product for the SC module [174].

Figure 18. Bibliometric density mapping of the SC research field in the last five years.

Table 1. Comparison of SCs with different types of batteries [3,12,132].

Analysed Parameters	Lead-Acid Battery	Lithium-Ion Battery	Redox-Flow Battery	Supercapacitor
Specific energy density (Wh/kg)	10–100	150–200	10–50	1–10
Specific power density (W/kg)	<1000	<2000	<200	<10,000
Cycle life	1000	5000	10,000	>50,000
Charge and discharge efficiency	70–85%	99%	70–85%	85–98%
Fast charge duration	1–5 h	0.5–3 h	1–10 h	0.3–30 s
Fast discharge duration	0.3–3 h	0.3–3 h	1–10 h	0.3–30 s
Shelf life (years)	5–15	10–20	5–15	20
Cost	Low	High	Medium	Medium
Safety and nature-friendly way	Low	Low	Medium	Medium
Operation temperature (°C)	−5 to 40	−30 to 60	0 to 40	−40 to 75

Table 2. Top 12 SC manufacturers in the world and their primary information [133].

	Company	Country	Founded	Estimated Financing	Revenue
1	Cellergy	USA	2002	NA	NA
2	Ioxus	USA	2007	$160.1 Million	NA
3	Maxwell Technologies	USA	1965	NA	$130.4 Million
4	Murata Manufacturing	Japan	1944	NA	NA
5	Nanoramic Laboratories	USA	2008	$9 Million	NA
6	Nec Tokin	Japan	1938	NA	$24.0 Billion
7	Nippon Chemi-Con	Japan	1931	NA	$1.02 Billion
8	Panasonic	Japan	-	NA	$71.8 Billion
9	Paper Battery Company	USA	2008	$5.7 Million	NA
10	Skeleton Technologies	Estonia	2009	$53.8 Million	NA
11	Yunasko	UK	2010	NA	NA
12	ZapGo	UK	2013	$18.2 Million	NA

Table 3. A comparison of single-cell SCs for fast energy delivery applications [31].

Specification	Capacitance (F)	Rated Voltage (V)	DC ESR (mΩ)	Maximum Current (A)	Stored Energy (Wh)
Maxwell Technologies	3400	2.85	0.28	2000	4
	1500	2.7	0.47	1426	1.52
	650	2.7	0.8	640	0.66
LS Mtron	3000	2.7	0.29	1900	3.04
	2000	2.7	0.35	1500	2.03
	1200	2.7	0.58	930	1.22

Table 4. Summary of literature classifications.

No.	Main Classification	Sub Classification and Details	Reference Numbers
1	General	History, Review, Developments	[20,21,23,25,26,30,33,37,41,53,60,70,97,104,106,111,142,149]
2	Energy Storage Applications	Hybrid Energy Storage Systems	[3,10,12,14,16,30,42,43,44,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,81,132,163,164,165,166,167,168]
		EV Storage Systems	[11,17,18,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,101,109,130,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162]
		Microgrid Systems	[63,64,65,66,68,137,139,141,145,147]
3	Materials	Electrode-Electrolyte and Other Components	[4,9,13,19,22,24,25,27,28,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,58,79,82,96,100,103,107,108,110,112,113,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,129,131,136,160,175]
4	Modelling	Simulation Characterisations	[80,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,138,169,171]
5	Applications	Manufacturer Companies	[44,55,56,57,59,102,133,134,170]
5	Applications	Various Applications	[60,61,62,67,69,89,95,98,99,105,114,128,135,139,140,143,144,146,148,172,173,174]

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Şahin, M.E.; Blaabjerg, F.; Sangwongwanich, A. A Comprehensive Review on Supercapacitor Applications and Developments. Energies 2022, 15, 674. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15030674

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Şahin ME, Blaabjerg F, Sangwongwanich A. A Comprehensive Review on Supercapacitor Applications and Developments. Energies. 2022; 15(3):674. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15030674

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Şahin, Mustafa Ergin, Frede Blaabjerg, and Ariya Sangwongwanich. 2022. "A Comprehensive Review on Supercapacitor Applications and Developments" Energies 15, no. 3: 674. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15030674

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Şahin, M. E., Blaabjerg, F., & Sangwongwanich, A. (2022). A Comprehensive Review on Supercapacitor Applications and Developments. Energies, 15(3), 674. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15030674

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